-Using psychology as an informed layperson
-- Guidelines For The Psychological Detective

What is the claim and who is making it?
Is the claim based on scientific evidence or anecdotal evidence?
Has the evidence been statistically analyzed to determine significance?
Are there plausible alternative explanations for the claim?

-Psychology from the scientist's perspective
-- Scientific Method

Observation of behavior
Analyze (WHY?)
Generate explanations (HYPOTHESIS)
Test explanations (RESEARCH)

-Research methods

Case study
-- In-depth study of an individual.

Suitable for studying rare conditions
Example: Genie was a girl who was locked in a small room & deprived of human contact from the time she was 20 mos, old until she was 13 yrs. old

Potential problems with lack of generalizability and experimenter bias.
Example: "Sybil".

Naturalistic observation
-- Description of what people do under natural conditions.

There may be a problem with reactivity.
There may be a problem with observer bias.
Useful in studying behaviors that could not ethically be manipulated in an experiment.
EXAMPLE: Study of bullying behavior.

Correlational research
-- Examines the relationship between 2 variables without actually controlling either one of them.

Research Question:
What is the relationship between the amount of TV violence observed and the amount of aggression manifested by children?

Correlation coefficient (r) is a mathematical estimate of the relationship between two variables which can range from +1.0 to -1.0.

The absolute value of r indicates the strength of the relationship. The closer to 1 either + or - , the stronger the relationship.

A positive relationship means that the variables increase or decrease together. For example, their is a positive correlation between height & weight because , in general, as height goes up weight goes up.

A negative correlation means the variables move in opposite directions. For example their is a negative correlation between test anxiety and test scores because , in general, as test anxiety goes up test scores go down.

Problems with the correlational strategy include:
Directionality Problems

Examples:

As the use of physical punishment goes up, the amount of aggression in the child goes up.
As the amount of TV viewing goes up, the weight of the child goes up.
As the amount of exposure to TV violence goes up, the amount of aggression in the child goes up.
As exercise goes up, depression scores go down.

Third Variable Problem

Examples:

The more people weigh, the higher their salaries (increasing age).
The more TV people watch, the more likely they are to have a heart attack (dislike of exercise).
As ice cream consumption goes up, so do the numbers of drownings (time of year).
As ratings of positive mood increases, the likelihood of making charitable contributions increases (personal funds available).
The number of bars and the number of churches (size of community).

Both Directionality and Third Variable

Advantages of Correctional Strategy
We can look at questions that cannot be examined with the experimental method.

Example:
Is there a connection between paternal rejection in the 1st year of life & adjustment to school?
Highly efficient in terms of time & cost.

Survey research
-- Involves collecting information from a selected group of people who are representative of a larger group.

Pitfalls of Survey Research: Inadequate Sampling
i.e. 1948 presidential election. Newspapers were printed announcing DEWEY DEFEATS TRUMAN. The newspapers came to that conclusion based on a telephone survey the day of the election. At that time phones were a luxury & sample was biased toward the wealthy (Republican) voters.

Wording of a Question
i.e. "Are you satisfied with job?" (85% indicate satisfied or very satisfied) versus "Would you do it again?" (less than 50% indicate yes).
i.e. "Would you say that industry contributes more or less to air pollution than traffic"

Traffic= 24% Industry= 57%

"Would you say that traffic contributes more or less to air pollution than industry

Traffic= 45% Industry= 32%

Social Desirability Responding
3 times as much toothpaste would be sold as is sold if people brushed as much as they claim to brush.
94% of people surveyed said they always washed their hands after going to the bathroom. Direct observation of 6,333 people found that only 68% really do.

Advantages of Survey Research
Large amounts of data gathered with relative ease
Have potenetial to allow us to accurately predict the outcome of events

Experimental research
-- The Experimental Method: A scientific method that seems to confirm cause-and-effect relationships by introducing independent variables and observing the effects on dependent variables

"The true method of knowledge is experiment." ~~William Blake

Conducting an Experiment:
Generate a hypothesis
Identify the independent and dependent variables
Choose a random selection of subjects
Assign subjects to experimental group or control group
Measure the results
Analyze the results using statistics

Example of an Experiement One:

Example of an Experiment Two:

Identifying the independent and dependent variables:

Conducting an Experiment:

Advantages:
Can establish cause and effect relationship

Critique of Study:
Description of a Study:

In an introductory course in abnormal psychology, students were told that there would be no textbook required for the course during the 1994-95 academic year. Students received assigned library readings from the instructor.The next year, the same course was offered again, but this time, a textbook was required. The same instructor was used for both courses, and both groups of students received the same handouts, quizzes and homework problems.
A significant difference was found in the quiz scores of the two groups.

The group that had a required textbook consistently obtained higher scores.
Can we say that the use of a textbook caused an increase in quiz scores?

Sources of research bias

Confounding Variables
Example: Coke - Pepsi slugfest (i. e. M vs. Q)
Example: Giving blood reduces the risk of heart attack

Study: In a recent study, only 0.7% of men who had given blood during the previous 2 years suffered a heart attack as compared with 12.5% of non-donors.

Theory: Donating blood rids the body of excess iron which is known to raise heart attack risk.
What is the potential confound??

Demand Characteristics
Example : Hawthorne Effect (People are not passive participants)

Experimenter Expectancy Effects
Example: Pygmalion Effect (Rosenthal)
Key Principles:
The concept of the self-fulfulling prophecy can be summarized in these key principles:
We form certain expectations of people or events.
We communicate those expectations with various cues.
People tend to respond to these cues by adjusting their behavior to match them.
The result is that the original expectation becomes true.
This creates a circle of self-fulfilling prophecies.

Statistics
-- Mathematical procedures that involve the summarization, analysis, and interpretation of data.

Descriptive Statistics:
Procedures used to summarize a set of numbers so as to describe their essential features.
More on Descriptive Statistics

Inferential Statistics:
Procedures used to determine if an independent variable had a significant effect.
More on inferential statistics

Ethical issues in human and animal research

Human: Ethical Issues in Human Psychological Research

Right to privacy
Ethical Safeguards:
Quit at any time
Anonymous

Possible discomfort or harm
Ethical Safeguards:
Informed consent
Can same question be investigated with less risk?
Do benefits outweigh possible cost?

Deception
Ehical Safeguard:
Debriefing

Animal: Ethics of research with animals:

APA Guidelines:
Justification for study
Are research personnel qualified?
Care and acquisition of animals
If done in the field, will habitat be destroyed?