Linda V. Orr
University of Southern Maine
Communication 499
 
 
         

    Feelings of anxiety toward computers and computer use, is common, affecting 30 to 40% of the population (Tseng, Tiplady, Macleod, Wright).  Researchers Rosen and Weil agree, reporting that one third of all college students experience some type of technophobia (DeLoughry, 1993).  They argue that this phobia is more than the fear of programming a VCR.  It is genuine aversion toward computers and computer use.  Rosen and Weil believe that students with this phobia may have done well using card catalogs in the library or blackboards in the classrooms.  Yet, with technology moving into these libraries and classroom, and computers becoming an essential teaching tool, technophobes are struggling (DeLoughry, 1993).

    Does potential users' attitude affect or influence their computer usage?  Will computer increase computer experience reduce anxiety?  What can be done to alleviate computer anxiety?  To answer these questions one must first understand the problems associated with computer anxiety.

    Anxiety by definition, is intense dread, apprehension, or nagging worry.  Computer anxiety as defined by Howard, Murphy & Thomas (1986) is the "fear of impending interaction with a computer that is disproportionate to the actual threat presented by the computer".  Computer anxiety is a concept specific anxiety type; that regularly occurs in a specific type of situation (Harris, Grangennett).  Those who are computer anxious may experience fear of the unknown, feeling of frustration, possible embarrassment, failure and disappointment (Fajou).  Rosen and Weil have established:
 

                                        Three Levels of Technophobia

          Anxious Technophobe: Exhibits the classic signs of an anxiety reaction
                    when using technology: sweaty palms, heart palpitations, headaches

 
                    Cognitive Technophobe:  On the surface is calm and relaxed, buy
                    internally seethes with negative messages:  "Everybody but me knows
                    how to do this!"  or  "I'll hit the wrong button and mess this machine up!"
 

                    Uncomfortable User:  May be slightly anxious or use some negative
                    statements, but generally not in need of one-on-one counseling.

                                        Source: Larry D. Rosen and Michelle M. Weil (DeLoughry, 1993)
 

    Computer anxiety has been associated with decreased use and worse, avoidance of information technology.  Avoidance can seriously affect some students academic progress (Brown, Vician) lower performance in business settings and ultimately affect career opportunities.

    Literature on computer anxiety offer conflicting theories.  Researchers (Loyd and Gressard, 1984; Howard & Smith, 1986; Glass and Knight, 1988; Necessary and Parish, 1996), support the theory of increasing computer experience will decrease computer anxiety.  Parish and Necessary found that college students with little or no computer experience have more anxiety than those students that have experience.  The results of their study revealed that "increased levels of computer experience and balance of weekly computer usage were both related with reduced levels of computer related anxiety".  Glass and Knight (1988) determined those computer anxious students will become less anxious after an initial trauma period.  By working through these fearful or frustrating stage students will gain experience, thus reduce anxiety.  It is believed that "the major factor in computer anxiety is experience or rather inexperience". (Pederson, 1989)  It is reasonable to assume that by increasing computer usage there by experience one would reduce anxiety.  Yet for those who are computer anxious this may prove to be difficult.  Because there are varying degrees of anxiety, those who are highly anxious may completely avoid computers.

  Attitude also needs to be examined as an important factor.  The users' attitude may directly influence their intention to use computers. (Speier, Morris and Briggs)  A positive relationship exists between experience levels with computers and favorable attitude toward computers (Necessary and Parish, 1989).  If the computer anxious user has a positive attitude toward computers he or she can expect to reduce anxiety through continued computer experience.  Computer attitude would seem then to be a significant determining factor that needs consideration.  Changing the attitude (negative) of the computer anxious individual will be extremely important.

    The effects of increased computer use may not necessarily provide results for all computer anxious users.  Michael Gos (1996) conducted a study which examined computer anxiety and computer experience.  His researched produced very different results.  The first part of his qualitative study focused on two computer anxious students.  Students were considered to be "computer anxious if the scored one standard deviation above the mean (85th percentile) for their cohort group on  CAIN, the Computer Anxiety Index, created by Simonson et al. (1987).  The Cain instrument was administered the first day of class."  Lisa had no prior computer experience.  Anne had prior experience.  By week five, of the first semester Lisa had come to love computers.  Her anxiety level had decreased by two standard deviations.  She experimented on the computer and was having fun.  Anne, the student with prior experience, showed a significant increase in anxiety levels.
 
 
Table 1
 
Changes in Computer Apprehension (Based on Results on the Computer Anxiety Index)
 
Subject             Pretest Score           Postest Score           Change
 
 Lisa                        81                            42                        -39
 Anne                      80                            91                        +11
 
 
                                                Source: Michael W. Gos  

    This finding indicated that reducing anxiety may be more that increasing experience, it may be related to the type of prior experience.

    During the second semester of the study Gos encountered more subjects, much like Anne.  These students all had prior experience, much of it negative.  The negative experiences mentioned, ranged from poor or failing grades (computer class), to be handed a manual and sent on your way, or worse, having to write a program.  The irony is research has predicted that experience reduces anxiety (Loyd and Gressard, 1984; Howard and Smith, 1986; Glass and Knight, 1988; Necessary and Parish, 1996) and of the eight computer anxious students seven had prior experience.  "The experience of Anne and Lisa suggest that experience is indeed a factor in computer anxiety but not in the way literature suggests."  Research supporting Gos asserts that the students who demonstrate anxiety prior to computer class are likely to continue to be anxious following training (Speir, Morris, Briggs)

    The quantitative study (Phase II) encompassed 185 subjects enrolled in an undergraduate writing course.  All students were given the CAIN, "statistical analysis provides the following:
 

    N = 185

    CAIN mean = 53.03

    Standard deviation = 18.228

    Quality of Experience mean = 2.227

    Standard deviation = 1.114

    Correlation: r = .75954p[less than] .0001

    Effect size: R-square = .5769" (Gos, 1996)
 

    This data suggests a correlation between the pleasantness of prior experience and current computer anxiety.  The student who had unpleasant prior computer experience tend to be computerphobes, those with pleasant prior experience, do not (Gos, 1996).  As shown, the ". . . quality of prior experience accounted for nearly 58% of the computer anxiety in these subjects" (Gos, 1996).  Remarkably, Gos found that every student that was computer anxious had prior experience.  He suggests that perhaps experience is a factor, yet the " . . . pleasantness or unpleasantness of the prior experience may determine the degree of anxiety" (Gos, 1996).  Individuals that experience unpleasant episodes with computers may as a result form negative attitudes toward the computer.

    A point that Gos fails to consider is the element of "playfulness" of the user.  Webster and Martocchio (1992), introduced the "construct" of microcomputer playfulness.  They developed a computer playfulness scale, that signifies a users cognitive spontaneity (playfulness).  Individuals that score high in microcomputer playfulness "tend to be more spontaneous, inventive and imaginative".  (Bozionelos, 1997)  These users will experiment more, their curiosity and self motivation lead them to increased confidence and positive attitudes.  Let us again consider Lisa, the subject in Go's study who drastically reduced her anxiety levels.  Mentioned was the fact that she enjoyed experimenting on the computer, she liked to explore and try applications on her own.  Perhaps the rational behind the decrease in anxiety has to do with her cognitive spontaneity or playfulness.  This can provide insight as to why some individuals over come anxiety and others have more difficulty.  Supporting this theory, a study done by Deaken University " . . . highlighted the importance of playfulness to successful human computer interaction " (Fajou)

    Researchers, Speier, Morris and Briggs looked closely at attitudes towards computers and the impact it has on performance.  They found a relationship existing between the examined attitudes and performance.  "Subjects who perceive computers to be easier to use and who perceive computers as useful tend to exhibit greater skill performance." (Speier et al.)  Their results exhibited an increase in fear and anxiety when skill performance had decreased.
 
 
Table 1

Correlation Matrix of Attitudes After Training and On Performance
Attitude (Time 1)                            Attitude (Time 1)                                  Attitude (Time 2)
Attitude (Time 2)                            Performance                                          Performance
 

Ease of Use       .36*                       Ease of Use T1         .15*                        Ease of Use T2          .28*
Usefulness        .14*                       Usefulness T1           .15*                        Usefulness T2           .17*  Anxiety            .66*                       Anxiety T1               .17*                        Anxiety T2             -.32*
Fear                 .38*                       Fear T1                   -.12*                        Fear T2                  -.14*
Anticipation      .49*                      Anticipation T1         .11*                        Anticipation T2       -.19*
Achievement     .38*                       Achievement T1        -.19*                        Achievement T2      -.14*

Changes in Attitude Related to Training and Computer Use

1- Test Comparison                    Mean               Mean
                                               Time 1            Time 2               I-Value            P-Value

Ease of Use                                 3.44                3.66                  5.835               .000*
Usefulness                                  4.40                4.36                    .941               .347
Anxiety                                      3.44                3.73               -11.5515              .000*
Fear                                           4.02                4.05                    -.867              .386
Anticipation                               2.07                2.11                  -1.677               .094
Achievement                               2.07                2.19                  -3.860               .000*
 
                                                    Source: Speier, Morris and Briggs
 
 
 

    It is reasonable that if the individual perceives poor performance, that perception will increase their anxiety level.  An examination of these results over a fifteen week period show the increase in anxiety.  It is rational to assume that if an individual is doing poorly and is anxious, if that individual's progress remains slow or is nonexistent, the anxiety will increase.  "Training and computer use may reinforce anxiety in students who indicate high initial anxiety and ultimately results in poor performance." (Speir, et al.)

    A pilot study done by Harris (University of Texas at Austin) and Grandgenett (University of Nebraska at Omaha) made reference to several well known researchers.  "Computer anxiety levels have been found to be better predictors of success in using computers that is extent of prior computer experience (Marcoulides, 1988), but computer anxiety scores are not related to amounts of computer experience (Rosen, Sears &  Weil, 1987; Marcoulides).  Computer experience appears to effect attitudes about computers, rather than computer anxiety (Gressard & Loyd, 1986, Igbaria & Chakrabarti, 1990).  Again we must agree that it is paramount to change negative attitudes in order to reduce anxiety.

    Research into computer anxiety has revealed serious ramifications for the computer anxious student.  Rosen believes that "a lot of people are under the illusion that this will go away." (DeLoughry, 1990).  Computer anxiety will not go away, but I do believe there are solutions.  Researchers have come up with a variety of methods to enhance the learning experience of anxious students.  Rosen and Weil in particular have spent nine years researching solutions to this problem.  They have developed five week treatment programs designed to reduce anxiety.  The task is to learn how to relax and how to change negative attitudes towards technology into positive.  It may not be plausible for students or employers to enter this five week program, but other options remain open.  It will take a concerted effort from instructors and teachers to help these individuals overcome their anxiety.

    Instructors must be aware of the ways in which they can help reduce computer anxiety in their students.  Ideally the first step would be to identify computer anxiety students.  Early intervention can help ease anxiety.  Instructor can pair the anxious student with a confident, competent student.  Also one-on-one help would be beneficial.  It is difficult if a student misses a class, opportunities to make up the class should be made available, especially for beginners.

    Weil suggests a slow paced atmosphere (DeLoughry, 1993).  The pressure imposed by time restraints can be overwhelming, increasing anxiety.  Students will need to relax with and around computers.  A calm, low stress atmosphere will benefit the learning student.  Students (especially those with prior negative experience) will need to build confidence in order to change their attitude.  Help the student build self confidence by providing successful experiences, especially in the early stages (Fajou).  As their confidence level increases, the anxiety reduces, and their attitude will become more optimistic.

    Encourage students to explore, "People need the opportunity to play before they gain confidence."  Weil suggests "that schools, colleges and businesses allow students and employees to experiment with new computers and new software before they are incorporated into daily activities."  (DeLoughry, 1993)  This would allow the user the time to explore, "play", and feel comfortable.  Another way to ease students into computer use is with educational games or word processing.  These non programming applications will be less intimidating to the computer anxious student.  Explore the Internet or the world wide web, on the computer, not through texts.  Use e-mail, to correspond with the instructors and other students.  Have students learn by experiencing the computers capabilities (Fajou).  The transition to more difficult tasks should be done step-by-step and be as painless as possible.  The quality of instruction is critical, slowly but surely computer anxious students can build confidence and skills.

    Elementary and Middle school teachers may be the answer, to eliminating computer anxiety.  Younger children have the advantage.  Today children are growing up in a rapidly changing technological world.  Technology is a part of their lives and they are comfortable with it.  A comparison can be made with the "habit" of using seat belts.  It is common knowledge that the use of seat belts save lives in car crashes.  Buckling up a seat belt is a conscious effort on the part of many adults.  However, children for whose earliest memory, associate seat belt use with automobile travel, it is a natural unconscious action.  Children regard computers as "cool stuff", they are not frightened.  They will be conditioned to use computers in much the same way they are conditioned to use seat belts.  Again the quality of instruction is important.

    The instructor, trainer or educator must be confident and capable.  Any anxiety on the instructors part will reflect on the students.  Instructors need to remain calm and continue to encourage growth and exploration.  Encourage confidence in students and keep computer experience enjoyable and fun.  As mentioned before, those with computer anxiety must be detected early.  Avoidance of the computer will place the student at a distinct disadvantage.  These students must be helped and not allowed to slip through the cracks.

    The Clinton Administration has pledged to create computer networks that will link homes, businesses and schools. (DeLoughry, 1993)  This course of action will be advantageous.  It allows us access to vast amounts of information and the ability to communicate with others around the world.  We must ensure that computer anxious student/employee are allowed the same opportunities.
 
 
 

References

Bozionelos, N. (1997) Cognitive Spontaneity as a Correlate of Computer Anxiety Towards Computer Use, Psychological Reports, 80:395-402

Brown, S.E. & Vician, C. "An Examination of the Relationship Between Computer Anxiety, Communication Apprehennsion and Student Experiences With Electronic Mail, AN EXAMINATION . . . (11 November, 1997)

Deloughry, T.J. (1993) 2 Researchers Say "Technophobia May Afflict Millions of Students", The Chronicle of Higher Education (28 April) :A25-A26

Fajou, S. "Computer Anxiety", COMPUTER ANXIETY (28 October, 1997)

Glass, C.R., & Knight, L.A. (1988)  Cognitive Factors in Computer Anxiety, Cognitive Therapy aand Research 12:351-365

Gos, M.W. "Computer Anxiety and Computer Experience: A New Look at an Old Relationship, The Clearinghouse, May-June 1996 v69 n5 :271-277, COMPUTER EXPERIENCE . . .
(11 November, 1997)

Gressard, C.P. & Loyd, B.H. (1986) The Nature and Correlates of Computer Anxiety in College Students, Journal of Human Behavior and Learning, 3:28-33

Harris, J. & Grandgenett, N. "Writing Apprehension, Computer Anxiety and Telecomputing: a pilot study", WRITING . . .
(29 September, 1997)

Howard, G.S. & Smith, R.D. (1986) Computer Anxiety in Management: Myth or Reality?, Communications of the ACM 29:611-615

Igbaria, M. & Chakrabarti, A. (1990) Computer Anxiety and Attitudes Towards Microcomputer Use, Behavior and Information Technology, 9:229-241

Loyd, B.H. & Gressard, C.P. (1984) The Effects of Sex, Age and Computer Experience on Computer Attitudes, AEDS Journal 40:67-77

Marcoulides, G.A. (19880 The Relationship between Computer Anxiety & Computer Achievement, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 4:151-158

Necessary, J.R. & Parish, T.H. "The Relationship between Computer Usage and Computer-Related Attitudes and Behaviors, Education, Spring 1996, v116 n3: 384-387,  ATTITUDES . . .
(24 November, 1997)

Rosen, L.D., Sears, D.C. & Weil, M.M. (1987) Computerphobia, Behavior Research Methods, Instruments and Computers, 19:167-179

Simonson, M.R., Maaurer, M.,  Montag-Torard, M., & Whitaker, M. (1987) Development of a Standardized Test of Computer Literacy and a Computer Anxiety Index, Journal of Educational Computing Research,  3:231-247

Speier, C., Morris, M.G., Briggs, G.M. "Attitudes Toward Computers:  The Impact of Performance"  PERFORMANCE . . .
(11 November, 1997

Tseng, H.M., Tiplady, B., Macleod, H., Wright, P. "Computer Anxiety and the Assesment of Mood and Cognitive Function"  MOOD AND . . .
(24 November, 1997)
 
 
 

 Sites of Interest
 

why technology? 

cmc499

electronic mail explained

breaking through computer anxiety

attitude towards computers instrument (ATCI)

cross-cultural comparison of computer attitudes