Part VII: Pedagogy

Large file: Patience Please

Instructional orientations provide ways to teach intrapersonal communication. In this section, you will find a variety of classroom applications for the study of intrapersonal communication processes. A course syllabus and various activities are included to improve pedagogy related to intrapersonal communication processes. JEA

If you have taken part in intrapersonal exercisesó experiential learningó of the sort presented in this section of this book, you know how important they are to learning. I have used intrapersonal exercises in teaching my course on intrapersonal communication. Now I have some new activities to try out. The exercises, especially the journal keeping, are central to the learning in the intrapersonal course. Since "knowing" is so fundamental an issue to intrapersonal communication, the reflective mode is invaluable. So much of intrapersonal communication occurs at high speed and out of immediate and deliberate conscious thought, that the reflective mode is needed to bring to awareness, to deliberation, intrapersonal processes. Reflection requires effort as we work out the meaning of things and events. Reflection is fed by knowledge and feeds knowledge. Students are grateful for the help in overcoming the obstacles to looking inward.

The exercises offered in this section are each and every one wonderful. They remind us that experiential learning involves more than the hands. They require thinking about the experience. Thinking about intrapersonal communication, talking about it, writing about it is what we are after. With courage and effort and facilitative teachers, like the ones who described the exercises here, we can explore and feel the joy of learning. LJS

Example Course Syllabus: Social Cognition and Communication (Theodore E. Zorn)

For the Student: A Special Kind of Listening (Taking Notes in Class) (Blaine Goss)

Using Inner Self Talk to Develop Self Confidence (Sue Ralph and Marie Brown)

Intense Intrapersonal Processing in the Classroom (Kate Butler)

Silence and Intrapersonal Observation As An Initial Experience (Lyall Crawford)

The Resume As A Tool for Self Concept Confirmation (David Bashore)

The Mask (Julie Adams Day)

A Summer Quiz (Don M. Boileau)

The Alter Ego: Self-Disclosure Without Anxiety (Elizabeth B. Schelle and Susan H. Koester)

The Student Journal: Exploring the Communicative Self Through Writing (Deborah Brunson)

Perception Assignment: Moving Beyond Biases (Kimberly Walters)

Teaching A Unit On Perception and Interracial Communication (Hazel J. Rozema)

Three Nonverbal Listening Styles: A Demonstration (Robert W. Loesch)

Earstorming (John C. Adams)

Survey Research on Projected Impressions (Anntarie L. Sims)

Empathy Interview (Craig Johnson)

Pressed On the Issue (Carol Ann Pugsley)

 

Example Course Syllabus: Social Cognition and Communication

Theodore E. Zorn

About the Author: Theodore E. Zorn is on the faculty of the Department of Communication Studies, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. 

Course Description

Think of a recent conversation you had with someone you just met. What did you think about prior to saying the things you said? What did you have to know to be successful in achieving your goals in the conversation? How did your stored knowledge affect your interpretations of the other person's messages? How did your impression of the other person change as a result of her or his messages? These are the kinds of questions we will address in this course.

This course is designed for advanced undergraduates who wish to learn about the relationship between social cognition, or how we think about people and social situations, and the production and interpretation of symbolic acts. Developed social cognitive abilities are assumed to be a foundation for sophisticated forms of communication. So, we'll look at how our knowledge and perceptions of people or social situations are structured, how they influence what we say to others, how they influence our interpretations of others' messages, and how they're affected by our interactions.

We will begin the semester with a brief introduction to the goals of the course and an overview of one theory of the social cognition-communication relationship. This theory is called constructivism. We'll then proceed to examine in depth research and theory on various social cognitive structures and processes, occasionally examining a constructivist perspective on these structures and processes. We'll end by examining some of the implications and applications of research and theory on social cognition and communication.

Required Texts

Grading

Your performance in this class will be graded on a contract basis. This method of evaluation allows you, considering your own goals and time commitments, to determine the grade you will receive. Except for exams, assignments will be evaluated as not acceptable, acceptable, and highly acceptable. The criteria for acceptability of individual assignments are outlined below. Generally (and perhaps obviously), the three levels differ in both the quantity and quality of work required.

Each of you will contract for the grade you wish to receive; contracts must be signed and given to me by February 2. Please arrange an appointment with me to discuss your contract when you turn it in. If necessary, you may renegotiate your contract, but you must do so before March 30.

Grade Requirements

A

ï Attend all classes but two (an excused absence is still an absence; being late or leaving early is equivalent to 1/2 a class)

ï Acceptable class participation (informed comments, questions; leading assigned discussions)

ï Attain an average score of 85% on the exams

ï Complete all of the following, with grade of highly acceptable on at least two:

-Film analysis paper and presentation/discussion

-Journal

-Term paper

-Traits project

B

ï Attend all classes but three

ï Acceptable class participation

ï Attain an average score of 75% on the exams

ï Complete the film analysis paper with grade of highly acceptable

ï Complete journal with grade of acceptable

C

ï Attend all classes but four

ï Acceptable class participation

ï Attain an average score of 65% on the exams

ï View the film "Death of a Salesman"

ï Complete journal with grade of acceptable

H (Graduate students)

ï The requirements for A, minus the film analysis project and the journal (you must view the film)

ï Turn in abstracts for five additional assigned articles on constructivism

ï Complete a book review for Cognitive foundations of calculated speech, with a grade of highly acceptable

P (Graduate students)

ï The requirements for B, minus the film analysis project and the journal (you must view the film)

ï Turn in abstracts for five additional assigned articles on constructivism

ï Complete a term paper with a grade of acceptable

For each grade level, pluses (+) and minuses (-) will be assigned to further discriminate among performance levels. Therefore, if you contract for a B and don't quite meet the standard for a B, you will receive a B-. Similarly, you may get a B+ if you surpass the standard. If you contract for a grade and only meet the requirements for a lower grade, you will receive the lower grade.

Additionally, if you complete the required assignments for the contracted grade, yet fail to meet the grade requirement for one of the assignments, you may still get the contracted grade if you substantially exceed one of the other requirements. This is true for all assignments except the exams; the minimum percentages specified for exams are required for each grade level.

Exams

The two exams, a midterm and final, will be similar in format; both will be in-class, short answer and essay exams, designed to be completed in about two hours. Each will represent all material covered in classes prior to the exam, as well as all readings, films, and presentations covered in those classes. The midterm will be given on March 16 and the final on Tuesday, May 4, at 6:00 p. m. The final exam will be "selectively cumulative."

Journal

Although we form impressions of and communicate with people many times each day, we generally don't reflect on and analyze the relationships between our impressions and communication. In order to apply course concepts to your lives and to add real life examples to our classroom discussions, each student will keep a journal describing (a) her or his thoughts about specific others and (b) communication with those specific others, and (c) an analysis of the relationship between the two. I will occasionally provide specific questions to address in your journal. Otherwise, you are expected to apply the concepts we cover in addressing the three issues above. An acceptable journal will include at least seven acceptable entries, at least one every three weeks. A highly acceptable journal will include at least 11 acceptable entries, at least one every two weeks. Journals should be turned in Feb. 2, March 2, and April 27.

 

Film Analysis

In groups of 3-4, you will analyze a production of Death of a Salesman. Your goal is to produce a 6-8 page paper assessing certain social cognition-communication relationships apparent in the interactions of the main characters. The paper is to be turned in March 2. Details of this assignment will be given in class. At least, you will describe Biff's and Willy's self-perceived identity(ies), each identity as perceived by others, and how these identities are negotiated through communication. A highly acceptable paper will meet the minimum writing and organization standards described in your coursepack, and will demonstrate understanding of course concepts. Papers not meeting the requirements (but demonstrating a good faith effort to meet them) may be revised and turned in no later than two weeks from the time they are returned to you. You may continue to rework the paper until it meets the highly acceptable standard, as long as all revisions take place within the two week period. I will commit to grading and returning revised papers within 24 hours.

Research and Presentation on Traits

One of the goals of the class is to help you develop your skills in perceiving and communicating with others. One of the ways to perceive others more accurately seems to be to have more dimensions to use in forming impressions of them. Therefore, your goal for this project is to research a personality "trait" (e.g., Machiavellianism, locus of control, Type A/B) and make a presentation to the class explaining and applying the concepts. Your presentation should include a brief exercise (such as a questionnaire or case study) to help the class understand and apply the concepts.

Term Paper

Your goal in this project is to explore in depth some topic in which you are interested and which is relevant to the course. There are a variety of possibilities. You may do a traditional term paper involving library research on a topic covered in the course, a case analysis of social cognition and communication in a particular context in which you are interested (e.g., an organization, a relationship, a family, a movie), a position paper, a mini-research project in which you collect and analyze data, or a research proposal. A highly acceptable paper will meet the minimum writing and organization standards described in your coursepack, and will demonstrate understanding of the concepts explored. Papers not meeting the requirements (but demonstrating a good faith effort to meet them) may be revised and turned in no later than two weeks from the time they are returned to you. You may continue to rework the paper until it meets the highly acceptable standard, as long as all revisions take place within the two week period. I will commit to grading and returning revised papers within 24 hours.

Book Summary/Critique

For this project, you will write a 3-5 page summary/critique of R. E. Sanders' Cognitive Foundations Of Calculated Speech. Each review should include:

ï a synopsis of the book's major arguments (not a chapter-by-chapter summary)

ï an assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of the arguments (not the strengths and weaknesses of the writing style, lack of pictures, choice of typeface, or other peripheral concerns)

A highly acceptable paper will summarize the major arguments and how they are related, evaluate the major arguments, and provide justification for evaluations. Since only highly acceptable will do for this assignment, papers not meeting that standard (but demonstrating a good faith effort to meet the standard) may be revised and turned in no later than two weeks from the time they are returned to you. You may continue to rework the paper until it meets the highly acceptable standard, as long as all revisions take place within the two week period. I will commit to grading and returning revised papers within 24 hours.

Class Participation

To understand the phenomena we're studying, to analyze them in informed ways, and to make a three-hour sitting bearable, class discussion is essential. Enthusiastic, thoughtful participation by all of us will enhance the quality of the class.

You are expected to read the assigned chapters before coming to class, reflect on the relevant issues (especially the key concepts identified on the list of readings), and contribute your ideas, opinions and experiences to class discussions. You will also be assigned a question at one or more times during the semester, which you are to attempt to answer (based on assigned readings) to initiate a discussion. An acceptable level of participation includes being prepared to discuss key concepts, and active involvement in in-class discussions and activities. Evaluation of the acceptability of your participation will be based primarily on quality rather than quantity.

Writing Policy

I will adhere to the policy approved by the Administrative Boards of the General College and the College of Arts and Sciences. The policy states: "Students should expect to be graded on spelling, punctuation, grammar, and style, as well as on the content and organization of their written work." More than one spelling or grammatical error per page is unacceptable, and may result in the paper being returned to you ungraded.

Late Papers and Makeup Exams

Late papers and makeup exams will not be allowed without documentation: a note from the Dean or a physician, an obituary column, or something equally convincing.

 Tentative Schedule of Classes

WeekTopicReading

For the Student: A Special Kind of Listening (Taking Notes in Class)

Blaine Goss

About the Author: Dr. Goss is a professor at New Mexico State University. 

The success you have in school often hinges on your skills at taking notes in class. Some students try to record every word in a lecture, and because writing is the slowest form of communication, they can't keep up and therefore miss important points. Other students realize the futility of word-of-word notetaking and thus just give up taking notes of any kind. At exam time, neither of these note-taking approaches are helpful.

In my recently revised book, The Psychology of Human Communication, I claim that note-taking is a special listening skill. Just as you do not have to remember word-for-word everything said in a conversation, you do not have to recall every word said in class either. Rather you must recall the key points and how they were organized. In short, you must remember ideas and structures. To help you accomplish this, consider the following suggestions. If you heed my advice, you should find that you will get all you need from a lecture.

1. Remember, note-taking is just that. It is not recording. Taking notes involves paraphrasing. It means that you translate what the instructor is saying into words that are meaningful to you. You should try to use the terms that the teacher uses, but you should not attempt to parrot the lecture.

2. Look for structure. Listen for deliberate pauses in your instructor's voice. They often note that the last point should be written down. If the instructor writes something on the board, copy it. She or he does so to make it easier for you to take notes. Most lectures are not continuous stories with only one beginning and one end. Look for beginnings and ends. Outline the lecture in the same way you would prepare a speech; use roman numerals, upper and lower case letters, and indented subpoints. It is a good idea to type your notes after you leave class. This helps you learn, while giving you an opportunity to fill in gaps with information you recall at this time.

3. Trust your memory. Your notes represent cues for recall; they do not represent all that was said. If you are paying attention and actively listening, your notes should provide cues for your memory. What you have written down is not all that you should be able to say when it is time for an exam. Your memory will work for you, if you provide the right key words.

4. Your notes will not be the same as someone else's. If you miss a class, get notes from at least two people, then construct the best set of notes that you can from both of them. Borrow notes from people who are doing well in class. That they are getting good grades may mean that they are taking good notes.

Reference

 

Using Inner Self Talk To Develop Self Confidence

Sue Ralph and Marie Brown

About the Authors: Sue Ralph and Marie Brown are on the faculty of the School of Education, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom. 

Self affirmations are an excellent and important way of building self confidence. In any situation what we think and feel about ourselves affects our behavior in that situation. If we feel confident, our inner self talk is positive and this leads to feelings of comfort and relaxation and to assertive behavior. When we feel less confident our inner self talk is negative, and often made up of "put downs." Here we question our self worth and this leads to feelings of tension, discomfort and to non assertive behavior.

Activity

In this activity you will explore your inner resources. It will encourage you to look at how positive inner self talk can lead to the development of assertive behavior and how negative inner self talk can lead to other less positive behavior

Example One

Margaret is an extremely shy and reserved person who is invited to a party. When she arrives at the house where the party is to be held her inner speech might go something like this.

Inner talk can help you deal with:

How could we help Margaret reduce her anxiety in similar situations and consequently reduce the behavior which stops her successfully interacting with other people in such social situations?

Positive inner self talk might include things like,

Other talk might include,

As you acknowledge and deal with your anxiety and engage management and coping skills your anxiety will be reduced. This can then lead to self praise such as,

Visualizing the events which cause you problems can also be of help. It is crucial that you learn to visualize yourselves doing the thing which causes the problem, well. Too often individuals visualize all the things that could go wrong and never visualize them being right. It is important to visualize yourself achieving great success in the situation.

You need to stop your negative self talk as quickly as possible before it becomes so powerful that it leads you into behaving negatively.

Example Two.

Many students experience difficulties in giving presentations. As well as planning this in as much detail as possible and making use of the many checklists available positive inner self talk and positive visualization can be used. For example some of the negative talk that goes through your mind might be

Using the ideas given in example one, develop some positive inner self talk to deal with the above example.

 

Instructions to Student:

This activity will take you about 30 minutes to complete. Answer the following questions about yourself.

1. Think about the things you like about yourself. Make a list of them. Write down at least ten things.

2. Make a list of the things that you do not like about yourself and would like to change.

3. Look at your second list again. organize the things you have written in order of difficulty of change. Put the easiest item to change at the top of the list and the most difficult one at the end.

4. Decide how you would change each item. Start with the easiest one first.

If you are working with a partner, discuss with them,

a) What you like about yourself.

b) What you would like to change.

3. Look at your second list again. Organize the things you have written in order of difficulty of change. Put the easiest item to change at the top of the list and the most difficult one at the end.

4. Decide how you would change each item. Start with the easiest one first.

If you are working with a partner, discuss with them,

a) What you like about yourself.

b) What you would like to change.

c) How you can make these changes. What is the positive inner self talk that you need to use?

d) Work through some of the change situations using positive inner self talk.

Some Other Points.

When you have completed the above you might like to discuss with your partner, or think about on your own the following questions.

How long did it take you to answer question one? How long did it take you to answer question two?

Was there a difference in the two?

Why do you think there could be a difference?

Remember if you change the way you think you will change the way you feel and consequently the way you behave. Most people in the above activity can answer question two but question one they find more difficult. If you found this to be the case for you, perhaps you need to engage in more positive thinking about yourself. 

Intense Intrapersonal Processing in the Classroom

Kate Butler

About the Author: Kate Butler is on the faculty at Johnson County Community College, Overland Park, Kansas.

Abstract: This article gives a case scenario about a student in an interpersonal communication class who had intense intrapersonal processing.

Perspective:

1. Do those who teach intrapersonal communication risk engaging students in learning situations that may be psychologically unsettling to the students or class?

2. What should a professor or students do when a student arrives at a class with intense emotional needs? 

Those who teach communication studies often find themselves on the edge of a unique territory: the student's sense of self. usually this is an interesting and informative part of our instruction and student learning, but the subjects

we teach in intrapersonal communication processing and interpersonal communication competencies can cause some students to cross a line into a need for a group therapy class. Any teacher recognizes how each new class develops a character created by the mix of personalities and needs of the students who are enrolled. A particular class, however, may have its share of unique situations that require our attention. These can be due to the academic, personal or social requirements of an individual student. While some of these needs may be routine, occasionally a student brings a problem to the class that may require careful handling by the instructor and the class, alike.

This essay recounts a classroom situation that may be thought-provoking as a case study or engage students in a discussion about the problems that can arise during a class studying intrapersonal communication processing. What should a professor or students do when a student arrives at a class with intense emotional needs? The case in point was a student enrolled in a summer class who had returned recently from a military operation where he was in combat preparedness, although he never was actually engaged in battle. Not all students fit this category, however. One student who enrolled in a particular summer was a veteran from the Gulf war who was returning to classes after having had his academic life interrupted for a military stint. An initial response might be to think of the repercussions of this information based on our current understanding about the adjustment difficulties of some returning service-people. In this case, however, the student's military stresses were not immediately known. Unfortunately, only the military information emerged initially.

The class in which this situation occurred was vibrant and enthusiastic about dyadic exercises. Beginning simple dyads were used for introducing one's partner. This was followed in a few weeks by a specific exercise designed to give them a dyadic experience with a series of three meetings with which to apply the Self- disclosure and Empathic listening units.

The intensity of the problem of control of his environment, combined with a high need for inclusion, was disclosed in his written reports. It became apparent that the tension of the wait during the Gulf war combined with the readiness that was expected for battle seemed to be the factors that led to his comfort in a situation where he felt he could command or feel in control. While he was not ready to disclose details to a group, he found the one-to-one experience a ready ground for the attention he wanted for him to talk about the situation. He seemed to seek that comfort during class because after the exercise was completed, the dyadic partner only saw him in class, and the dynamic of her intense listening was changed, due to the context change.

It was after the three meetings of this dyadic encounter that the problem escalated from annoying behavior to a problem with his insistence on "entertaining" the people near him with remarks, or lingering conversations. The student had mentioned several times to the class that he had studied Russian in the military and had planned to major in the language and work in a career where the Russian language was needed. A logical choice for a partner could have been a Russian student in the class, who would have provided an opportunity to practice the language and get some first hand information about customs. Instead he chose as his partner the attentive female student who usually sat next to him.

A couple of times at the beginning of the semester the student interrupted lectures with audible conversations with nearby students. I used the usual techniques of a brief pause, or walking near the proximity of his desk and finally spoke with him after class about how a high social need can be met outside of class, or in activities designed for this purpose. Several nearby students seemed uncomfortable with his pursuit of the talk and made gestures to still him, but he persisted in his interaction with the female chosen for his dyad.

A tension formed in the interaction between us. Simple tasks like role taking (required in our department) resulted in his not answering me, or his pursuit of conversation with others. I decided to approach him face-to-face regarding the consistent talking. I spoke with him before class, out of the hearing range of the other students.

It seemed a good idea to briefly discuss his social needs which I described as his frequent conversations with others in the class.

He angrily reproached me, and hovered over me menacingly and leaned toward me in a threatening way. I noted his behavior but decided to stay focused on the situation at hand. I explained the class code of conduct which we had reviewed at the beginning of the semester. I also described the ways I had attempted to get his attention to the disruptions. He became withdrawn and would not respond. I asked him if he understood, and he shrugged, then entered the classroom.

A new turn in his behavior at that point joined the elements of his casual conversations with intervals of announcing to the class about his "expertise" Interpersonal Communication because he "had already studied it in the Army." While this pattern was worrisome because he tended to announce it randomly, it wasn't until another student disclosed to me that he spent the time during our daily class break to, in her words "try to get the class against you." She told me this was upsetting to her and others. I thanked her for letting me know of her discomfort.

Our college has a process for disruptive students. We can ask them to see the Dean of Students who will give them options about their class attendance. I decided to speak with her about the situation and to get her advice about what to do. She gave me her card to give to him and at the next outburst to ask him to see her.

This is where the story takes a different turn. The student changed his pattern. For several days the student was not disruptive. He didn't talk with others and had stop blurting out about his Army training classes. I wondered why he had changed, but decided that as long as he was not overtly disrupting class I would not ask him to visit the Dean's office.

Suddenly in the next week the student's disruptive talking reappeared. Realizing I needed to stop this intrusion, I took time to review the last weeks of the class schedule to see how I could have him complete the coursework , but not do so in the classroom.

I conferred with the Dean about the situation . She affirmed the approach to send him to her for the information. After this I spoke with the student again. This time I asked to see him in the classroom, alone, after class. My intention was to avoid embarrassing him and to present my plan to him. He again assumed the hovering stance and remained standing close, with his sunglasses covering his eyes, until I gave him the dean's card. At that point he grabbed the card so vigorously that it set me back on my heels. I steadied myself and asked him to leave the room.

The student did finish the semester out of the class. He presented his last paper to me in my office and took the final exam in the Testing Center. On his final exam he wrote angry responses to the questions in clouded language on the side of the exam paper.

The student followed my suggestion for him to see the Dean, but the results were not satisfying to him. His second visit was to the Program Director who talked to me about the situation and supported my decision.

After receiving the final grade, the student was unhappy again. He left a threatening note in my mailbox indicating that if I did not "comply" with his " 7- 14 day" time frame he would take "all actions necessary" to get what he wanted. I took the letter to the Dean who wrote to him outlining the correct format to appeal a grade. The student never followed up with an appeal.

What is there to learn from this scenario?

First, although we know that all students may potentially have different perceptions, sometimes their differences require us to stretch our instructional approach. Second, early detection of a student's specific emotional needs is not always possible. Certain behaviors indicate when a student is overly talkative, or needs "space," or has a particular interest in another student. Some responses are routine in the classroom. It occurs to me that using the self-disclosure exercises to glean nuances of temperament and experiences can help with a keener insight into the student's background.

Third, instructors can pay attention to a student's growing need for control and defuse that pattern by a series of steps which can include private discussion with the student about perceptions of the situation. Changes in seating, if that is possible, to remove the current "support system" for the offending behavior. Many students find disruptive behavior to be disconcerting and will not tolerate or respond to such behavior.

Fourth, discover where the support for the faculty is in your college or university. Community colleges have a keen ear for the student's need, but will also add the needed professional support for an instructor.

Fifth, if behavior progresses with increasing disruption and a process is in place in the college to remove the student, analyze the situation keeping in mind several factors: the needs of the whole class as balanced with the demands of one student; the classroom standards as discussed with the class; your own personal standards.

Sixth, in reality, there will be students whose personal lack of preparation or unique background will make it difficult for them to be included over the long term in a regular class.

Finally, we can be prepared by knowing the process in our college or university to meet the situation. An individual's confidence about how to support the self, the class in general, and provide an option can reinforce positive experiences.

Silence and Intrapersonal Observation As An Initial Experience

Lyall Crawford

About the Author: Lyall Crawford is on the faculty of the Department of Communication, Weber State College, Ogden, Utah 84408-1903 (801-626-6426). Copyright by the Speech Communication Association.

Abstract: This activity is designed to teach principles of intrapersonal communication processes. This article appeared in the Speech Communication Teacher, a publication of the Speech Communication Association.

 Instructions to the Student: Please do not talk. Read this instead.

The term has begun. This is our first class together.

Instead of talking from the very beginning, which is what we commonly do when we first meet someone, let us begin our contact with one another by being silent.

For the next 20 minutes or so, quiet yourself. Become mindful of what you are feeling and thinking. Try to make yourself aware of everything that is happening in terms of your own experience. Become the object of your own cognition. Close your eyes, if this will help you focus your attention intrapersonally. When you attend to yourself in this way, what cognitive and non-cognitive occurrences take place? Do you feel uncomfortable or silly sitting in a room with other people and behaving in this manner? Are you uneasy with being quiet and contemplative? Pay attention to your paying attention. Remember what you notice.

Next, move your focus from the inside to the outside. Position yourself so you can look around the room and see everyone present. Put your attention on the other persons who have enrolled in this class with you. What do you notice? Take paper and pencil and write down your impressions. Record at least one impression for everyone in the one class with you. Are they mostly strangers or have you signed up for this class with many of your friends? Is there someone present you find particularly attractive? Is there someone present you cannot imagine yourself having anything in common with? What do you actually notice about others, especially during initial encounters? Do you seem to focus on the same characteristics, no matter what the situation or the person encountered? What information do you use to form your impressions of other persons? When you consider your present situation, are you generally pleased or generally disappointed with what you discover when you look around the room? How does this affect your expectations for this class? What are your reasons for being here, anyway? Or maybe you are not thinking along these lines at all. If this is the case, what are you thinking? Feeling? Record what is going on. Remember, you should have at least one impression of everyone present in the classroom with you.

Begin as soon as you have read these instructions. All too soon our quiet time together will end.

The Resume as a Tool for Self Concept Confirmation

David Bashore

About the Author: David Bashore is on the faculty of the College of San Mateo, San Mateo, CA.


Abstract: The goal is to demonstrate a practical application of self concept by using resume writing techniques. This article appeared in the Speech Communication Teacher, copyright by the Speech Communication Association. Reprinted by permission.

After experiencing many problems with assigning a communication journal in my interpersonal communication course, I am now using a resume project to accomplish many of the same objectives. My students also have found the resume valuable in their career searches after graduation.

In addition, I use the resume for teaching interviewing skills. Using role playing, I ask students typical job interview questions. As they respond, I encourage them to identify and elaborate on their strengths and their goals.

The project is assigned in four steps: self-analysis, goal setting, evaluation, and writing. In each step the student focuses on strengths.

Self-analysis. At the start of the course students are told to make a list of their strengths or weaknesses, likes or dislikes, and accomplishments or failures. Weekly reminders encourage them to work on this step on an ongoing basis throughout the course. They are instructed to request feedback from their friends as well as to use introspection.

Also, they are told not to be concerned if the failure list is longer than the accomplishment list because both are valuable learning experiences.

Goal Setting. Approximately one month later students are told to start another list. This time they identify their goals: long-term and short-term, career and personal.

Evaluation. This step has three parts. 1. Prioritize the goals. Which are the most important? Which need to be accomplished first? 2. Determine if the goals are realistic. Can the goals be accomplished with the identified strengths and abilities? 3. Plan any further education or training that might be needed to accomplish the writing, it should demonstrate students' strengths that are required in their career fields. The first place this is shown is in their career objectives which should incorporate two or three relevant strengths. For example, "Objective: A customer service position using my administrative, sales, and interpersonal relations skills."

Strengths should also be demonstrated when explaining previous and present job duties and responsibilities. Rather than simply listing job duties, action verbs should be used to describe the level of involvement and skills learned by performing the activities. For example, instead of just writing "customer service," students are taught to use phrases like "successfully researched and resolved customer questions and complaints." Even jobs that may seem insignificant to students can be described in ways that show transferable job skills.

By emphasizing the importance of recognizing and demonstrating their strengths, students see that they have positive qualities that are of value to others. For some students this may be the first time they are asked to focus on and talk about the positive aspects of their self images.

The Mask

Julie Adams Day

About the Author: Julie Adams Day is on the faculty of William Jewell College, Liberty, MO.

Abstract: The goal is to promote an opportunity for self-analysis and self-disclosure. This article appeared in the Speech Communication Teacher, copyright by the Speech Communication Association. Reprinted by permission.

In interpersonal communication we discuss all the factors that make up an individual's self. These discussions often center on how we form these perceptions, our self-concept, and how we reveal ourselves to others through roles we play and "masks" we wear. At the end of the semester I ask students to design a "mask" that represents them and to share the mask with the class.

I give each student a basic white mask without eyes or a mouth. The shape is similar to the Greek drama masks, and ribbon can be tied to each side as if the students were going to tie it on. I encourage the students to cut out eyes, a mouth, and a nose if so desired. I let the student be as creative as she or he wants to be using color, designs, collages, photographs, actual objects, and lettering to convey who and what she or he is.

The mask can give the students a chance to reflect on who they are. The symbolism used, such as large eyes to represent that the student is trusting, can reveal much to those with whom the mask is shared.

Following their creative endeavors, students share their masks with the class. I explain that they may go into detail or they may want to share only a few parts of their mask, similar to how we self-disclose in actual exchanges. Many students will go into great detail while others share only the obvious. Encourage others to comment on the masks; perhaps asking why a certain color or photograph was placed where it was, or comment on how their perceptions of the other person were changed through this exchange.

This activity works best at the end of the semester when students are comfortable with you and the other students. I announce the exercise and distribute masks about one week before I want the students to bring their masks to class. This allows for careful thought and creative preparation. It is a time of looking at how we become who we are by experiencing and relating to others.

A Summer Quiz

Don M. Boileau

About the Author: Don M. Boileau is on the faculty of the Department of Communication, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030 (703 323-3575)

Abstract: The goal of the activity is to broaden students' life experiences and increase their competence as communicators. This article appeared in the Speech Communication Teacher, copyright by the Speech Communication Association. Reprinted by permission.

Summer school creates an opportunity to emphasize the power of informal learning in the communication process. Since competent communicators enrich their interactions through a wide variety of ideas and interests, I encourage students to try different activities by giving a "summer quiz" on the first or second night of class. This quiz, unlike other quizzes, encourages students to talk with each other to find out what is going on locally and also counteracts the alienation some students feel.

The quiz also provides the subtle message that reading nonrequired books and going to concerts are valuable learning experiences that enhance their ability to create and interpret messages. Inherent in the educated person is the attitude that one learns in many ways. Students find that the act of answering these questions stimulates them to make plans to seek new experiences and reach out to others. Their answers also serve as springboards for conversations before class, during breaks, and helps us all to know each other better.

Summer Quiz

Please fill out in duplicate; keep one copy and return the other by the end of the second class. Monitor your progress during the summer. You will be asked about one of these activities in the final quiz.

1. This summer I plan to attend the following concert:

Artist:

Place:

2. Before school starts again in the fall, I plan to read the following books: (at least one)

3. This summer I expect to visit the following museum to see a particular exhibit.

Museum:

Exhibit:

4. One of the places that I have never visited but plan to tour is:

5. This summer I expect to hear the following lecturer to learn a new subject.

 

Lecturer:

Topic:

6. As a new eating experience, I expect to try to fix the following food (dish) or visit the following foreign restaurant:

7. This summer I expect to meet someone I have not met before. I expect to meet this person at the following place:

 

The Alter Ego: Self-Disclosure Without Anxiety

Elizabeth B. Schelle and Susan H. Koester

About the Authors: Elizabeth B. Schelle and Susan H. Koester are on the faculty of the University of Alaska-Southeast, Juneau, Alaska.

Abstract: The goal of this activity is to enable students to engage in self-disclosure required of communication courses without the anxiety of disclosing personal information. This article appeared in the Speech Communication Teacher, copyright by the Speech Communication Association. Reprinted by permission.

The dynamic principle of fantasy is play, which belongs also to the child, and as such it appears to be inconsistent with the principle of serious work. But without this playing with fantasy no creative work has ever come to birth. The debt we owe to the play of imagination is incalculable. (Carl Jung)

The use of an alter ego in our speech communication classes developed out of a concern that some students were uncomfortable with personal disclosure required in courses. We discovered that it was inappropriate and unrealistic to expect, over the brief period of an academic semester, the high level of personal trust in both instructor and fellow students that such self-disclosure demanded. We often completed a semester with a vague sense of betrayal that we had cajoled our students into an experience that left some of them feeling embarrassingly exposed. We believed that several classroom exercises and reflective journals required for evaluation were an inappropriate invasion of privacy and alienated some students, thus restricting their ability and willingness to learn the material covered in class.

The solution seemed to be some sort of "buffer" that would allow students to improve their interpersonal communication skills without feeling the tension of required personal disclosure. Our solution was the creation and use of an alter ego for each pupil. Students were asked to develop a personal profile of someone whom they would essentially speak through for certain classroom assignments. The idea was to add an element of mystery and protection of privacy. The alter ego could be the student in disguise, possess one aspect of the student's personality, or represent her or his ideal self. In this manner students were challenged to work through interpersonal situations and process class material in an atmosphere of freedom and respect. Students were able to talk about personal experiences without anyone knowing whether or not their feelings and experiences were being revealed.

The learner's first class assignment was to create an alter ego, "a second-self and inseparable friend," in a one to three page profile that might include information such as name, age, sex, significant relationships, national, racial, ethnic, religious identity, personality traits, values, goals, fears, and dreams. The students' alter ego profiles were to be complete and vivid enough that when they shared them with classmates a fairly clear picture of their personal attributes would emerge.

We discovered over the course of a number of semesters that many journal writing assignments and class discussion activities, which we had used for years, could easily be adapted to the alter ego concept. Susan Glaser's Toward Communication Competency and Jacquelyn B. Carr's book Communicating With Myself: A Journal provide many exercises that we used for this purpose.

One writing assignment asked students to describe a person with whom their alter ego had a relationship. They began by defining at what stage this relationship was and how it was initially formed. This essay encompassed a number of weeks to allow the students the advantage of monitoring and describing relational communication, ultimately leading to their understanding of the facilitative, as well as debilitative communication patterns that emerged. At this point the students were in a position to set their goals for the future of the relationship. The conclusion of their analysis required an end-of-the-semester evaluation of the relationship's growth.

One classroom activity widely employed by speech instructors that we used with the alter ego was asking students to bring to class for sharing an object that symbolized some aspect of the self-concept. Many students delight in this self-disclosure; however, there are often many who, although intrigued with what others have to say, are uncomfortable disclosing what meaning their object has for them. Employing the alter ego allowed students to communicate with their peers with less anxiety.

For a unit on perception, students were asked to describe a recent incident in which their alter ego and her or his friend had a disagreement or misunderstanding as a result of not checking out their perceptions with each other. To organize their answer, our learners examined: 1) behavior of the alter ego; 2) behavior of the friend; 3) the alter ego's inference about friend's behavior as well as the reverse; and, finally, 4) the appropriate perception check on friend's behavior.

The alter ego concept was also used in a classroom exercise on language. After a discussion of facilitative language behaviors, such as those of responsibility, detail, and intention, students were asked to demonstrate their understanding of these concepts using a five-step procedure. They began by writing at their desks statements of both pleasure and displeasure that their alter ego might like to communicate with a significant other. These statements would include the alter ego's feelings and specific intentions. Still working on their own, the students engaged in covert rehearsal and practiced saying their statements using the skills covered in an earlier lecture. This practice required that they assume their alter ego's identity and imagine two or three ways their second self might communicate. Finally, they recorded the phrasing with which they were most pleased, role played the scene, and received feedback from their classmates in small groups. The next step required the students to plan for a specific time and place that their alter ego could communicate these messages. At this point the students had the skills necessary to clearly communicate pleasure and displeasure within the relationship. As a follow-up, they were instructed to write about their alter ego's ability to use facilitative language based upon at least one experience using the process learned in class.

In the nonverbal unit, learners had an opportunity to establish a goal for improved nonverbal communication, rehearse the target behavior and finally, perform and assess their nonverbal effectiveness in a specific situation. Beginning outside of class, they monitored their alter ego's interaction in particularly difficult encounters such as saying "no" to a friend. A description of what occurs was written out: "I rarely look at my friend. Instead I stare at my fingernails which I am cleaning. My voice is hesitant, I sigh loudly, and I never smile," followed by a goal, written in observable, behavioral terms about this encounter: "When I speak to my friend, I will look her directly in the eyes, place my hands in my lap, and speak in a warm, friendly yet firm tone of voice and conclude my response by lightly touching her on the arm." After practicing this nonverbal communication in small groups, students gave each other feedback. To complete the activity they were asked to report the results of their alter ego's nonverbal communication by describing a specific situation, the nonverbal behaviors used, and an evaluation of performance. At this point the students had the option of speaking from their own experience.

Student comments about this approach to classroom and writing assignments are very positive. As one student noted, "The alter ego alternative definitely made some of the experiential aspects of the class easier for me to deal with. It allowed me a means by which I could 'cop out' on those things I did not care to share." For one learner the class would have been 'intolerable had I not had an alter ego to stand in my stead."

Another student agreed that this approach gave her an "escape." However, she added, "Personally there were times I didn't 'run' to the alter ego to hide; I wanted to really analyze and evaluate how I reacted or felt concerning questions brought up in class or assignments within myself. I found it important to start seeing my feelings truthfully. Then when I didn't find the appropriate answers within myself I would make my alter ego have the proper answers and questions."

Pointing out how this approach allowed her to initially transcend her own idiosyncrasies by identifying weaknesses and specific interpersonal relationship differences, one young woman was, to use her word, "motivated" by her alter ego to address her own communication problems. For these learners the alter ego not only afforded the privacy they needed but served as an example after which they could pattern their real selves.

Student feedback made it quite clear that the initial written description of the alter ego must contain some real characteristics of the writer with the obvious condition that the author not have to tell others what part was real and what part was not. Additionally, students expressed a desire for concrete examples for each assignment to serve as a guide. Many suggested that a preview of the types of assignments to be covered during the semester would assist them in the creation of their alter ego. For many students the experience served as a memory tool for retaining what they gained in class; for others it was "just plain fun."

This imaginative exercise offers instructors a creative instructional tool while respecting students' right to privacy. Combined with assigned classic readings and lectures, the alter ego can be incorporated into role playing, small group discussion, and written reinforcement through journal writing and test taking. Much like scientists who look into microscopes to examine aspects of themselves. students can focus on their introspective lenses to gain new perspectives on their own communication strengths and weaknesses.

The Student Journal: Exploring the Communicative Self Through Writing

Deborah Brunson

About the Author: Deborah Brunson is on the faculty of the Department of Communication Studies, The University of North Carolina at Wilmington, 28403-3297. She is particularly interested in interracial communication.

Abstract: The goal of this activity is to provide a student journal assignment through which learners can explore and expand the cognitive and affective domains of their intellectual selves. .

Perspective:

1. How can the student journal be a useful learning tool?

2. How can the journal help a student's intrapersonal processing regarding intercultural communication?

 

Speech communication educators and scholars have directed much of their pedagogy and research toward the interpersonal processes of human interaction. This is understandable, because the sharing and exchanging of messages is central to the human communication process. An important corollary of interpersonal communication is communication competence, which Spitzberg and Cupach (1984) define as "...the ability to demonstrate appropriate communication in a given context" (p. 66). Competency is affected by the communicator's knowledge of appropriate social, cultural, and interpersonal rules.

Although an important component of competency is to provide opportunities for learners to expand their repertoire of appropriate behaviors through structured skills-based activities, communication educators must also provide experiences through which learners can explore and expand the cognitive and affective domains of their intellectual selves. Presenting learners with a "laundry list" of appropriate verbal and nonverbal behavioral objectives that increase competency based upon how well behaviors are executed, may facilitate interaction but may accomplish little to enhance communicators' cognitive and affective capabilities. Incorporating the student journal into the speech communication curriculum is a vehicle through which communication educators can encourage self-growth that can facilitate fundamental change in learners' cognitive and affective domains.

Sullivan (1989) notes that "Writing satisfies a basic human need for self-expression and self-exploration" (p. 55). It is a reflexive enterprise that if facilitated appropriately by the teacher, can engage the writer in substantively reflecting upon her or his thoughts, beliefs, values, and actions (Fulwiler, 1982; Geddes, 1992; Hyatt, 1992; Knight, 1990; Zacharias, 1991). Journal writing is the basis for intrapersonal expression; however, as Vygotsky (1962) suggests through his notion of "inner speech," we come to express ourselves only as a result of first having interacted with others through social dialogue. This concept means that as the students begin to write the opening lines of their journals, the ideas and feelings they express reflect their life experiences, and are mediated by such variables as culture, age, relational histories, and social constructions of reality.

Journals and journal writing are political in nature. In other words, someone has to decide the purpose, content, and objectives of the writing process. In most classrooms, this task is exclusively reserved for the teacher. Although there is nothing inherently wrong with this approach, it has the tendency to limit the breadth and depth of the student's self-expression. As Staton and others (1988) note, the content and "voice" of student journals are inextricably linked to the teacher's pedagogical assumptions and educational philosophy. They maintain that the traditional format of journal writing involves limiting the topic choices to those assigned by the teacher, and the principal learning objective is to correct content and structural errors in the writing as opposed to encouraging self-expression and exploration through critical thinking.

An alternative approach is the dialogue journal, which engages the student and teacher in conversation about student-generated topics (Staton et al., 1988) and as such, is considered a vehicle for student and teacher empowerment. Bode (1989) observed that:

It is through dialogue journal writing that education can be personalized. From a teacher's perspective, that is very empowering. The essence of teaching is to meet each child at her or his point of need. (p. 570)

A dialogue journal often results in students adopting two non-traditional classroom behaviors which often redefine the traditional boundaries of the student-teacher relationship. They include: (a) complaining about the course structure, other students, or the teacher's instructional methods and (b) questioning values, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of themselves and their instructor (Staton et al., 1988). Because students write on a regular basis (i.e., daily, weekly, bi-weekly) over an extended period of time, this activity requires a prolonged commitment from the teacher and student to engage in an ongoing and potentially intensive dialogue.

In my efforts to incorporate journal writing in the communication classroom, I have developed an approach which reflects elements of both approaches. Students may write about areas not specified in their assignment, but they are also provided a framework that includes clearly defined parameters. Student journals have been particularly effective in my Interracial Communication course because the subject matter is sensitive and can be intimidating for some learners. Students may become caught in the "spiral of silence" that Noelle-Neumann (1984) believes constrains individuals from openly expressing unpopular opinions or views. If students believe that their teacher can be trusted to respond nonjudmentally to their discourse and that she or he will offer additional information that can aid in their intellectual and emotional growth, however, then they will use the journal to self-disclose at levels that may be uncomfortable for them in the classroom.

I introduce the journal assignment by explaining its purpose, my expectations for their final product, and invite them to use the activity as an avenue for introspection, reflection, and change.


Interracial Communication Journal

Sometimes, when we are exploring ideas, it is helpful to think about them through our writing. That is the purpose of this assignment. The journal that you will create will hopefully provide you some space for reflection on an intellectual and emotional level about interracial relationships, and how communication affects them. Your reflections should be related to any or all of the following:

material that we read in class

class discussion

your past or present experiences that are related to our topic

class activities (simulations, role plays, etc.)

"current events" from media (please attach a photocopy or audio/visual tape)

material from other books or journals (include full citation)

any other source that you believe is relevant but I haven't included.

Your entries should always connect with some specific aspect of our course: a concept from a reading, a quotation from the material, a comment or question offered or raised by a classmate, etc. This journal should not be a sermon on the evils of racism, prejudice, or discrimination (i.e., "it's a shame!"). Your writing should go beyond such platitudes. You will hopefully feel free to agree or disagree with the positions presented in our class. I ask that you do so by sharing your thoughts and feelings.

 

There are a total of ten entries which students submit in two installments. Ideally, it would be preferable to increase the number of entries, and some students do write more than the expected amount. Ten well-formulated dialogues, however, provide substantive opportunities for exchanges between myself and the writer.

What follows are excerpts from one student journal at three points in her writing. A pattern emerges that reflects elements of the traditional and nontraditional journal format. Her initial entries tend to involve simply relating facts through a dialogue with the self and then progress over time so that she also directly addresses issues to me as her teacher and conversation partner. Her first entry recounts a childhood event that subsequently had a pivotal impact upon her conscious awareness of race and racism.

I chose not to write a response to this entry because the writer concluded her narrative with a clear reflexive comment that summarized the impact of this writing experience upon her self-identity. A second excerpt finds the writer grappling with her own ambivalent racial attitudes.

Later she discusses interracial friendship:

In her sixth entry, this student's discourse approached the empowering level of dialogue journal writing that involves such nontraditional language as complaining and questioning. The entry initially identifies some positive outcomes that the writer has experienced in the course, and then levels complaints about the course content and its effect upon her.

Clearly, the student desires a dialogue beyond her own self-talk, and it is important at this point in her writing experience that she receive validating, and confirming responses from her reader. The writer obviously feels that she has experiences what Shuy (1988) calls an event in the course that is "prejudicial" toward her. Why is complaining an important component of a dialogue journal? Shuy (1988) noted that complaining is an important language function of this writing process:

Allowing students the space to dialogue about uncomplimentary issues in the course is a tall order for some teachers. Thus, the dialogue journal, or any version of it, that a teacher chooses to employ will require honest reflection by the instructor about their pedagogy and their educational philosophy.

As stated earlier, journals and journal writing are political in nature. If the teacher is unable or unwilling to invite this level of discourse in the classroom, then it would be unwise to encourage students to freely express their thoughts, feelings, values and opinions within the intimate domain of journal writing. However, if teachers can find a comfortable, and an appropriate level upon which they can introduce journal writing in their speech communication courses, the learning outcomes can be potentially rewarding for them and their students.

References

 

Perception Assignment: Moving Beyond Biases

Kimberly Walters

About the Author: Kimberly Walters is on the faculty of DeAnza College, Cupertino, CA 95014


Abstract: The goal of this activity is to provide students an opportunity to look beyond their biases and to attempt to see the world from another's point of view. This article appeared in the Speech Communication Teacher, copyright by the Speech Communication Association. Reprinted by permission.

When teaching Interpersonal Communication, one of the most eye-opening assignments I use deals with perception. I have had several students tell me that this assignment has been very valuable for them. I give the assignment following a discussion of perception and the difficulty most of us have with suspending judgments about other persons, while attempting to see the world from their points of view. These judgments frequently spring from our prejudices and stereotypes of others which, in turn, prevent us from getting to know persons as unique individuals.

The assignment provides students with an opportunity to look beyond their biases and to attempt to see the world from another's point of view. This frequently results in students realizing their own prejudices and, consequently, becoming more empathic and open to that which is different from them. It can be given as a written assignment or as an oral presentation. The assignment is as follows .

Spend at least an hour with a person, group, or organization which seems to have values that differ from your own. Your goal is to try to understand them and their perspective as thoroughly as possible without making any judgments about their points of view. For instance, if you have negative feelings about the police, go to your local police department and see if you can interview a police officer. Find out why he's an officer, how he views his profession, and what he likes about being an officer. Or, if you're not exposed to senior citizens, spend time in a convalescent hospital or a senior day care center and talk with some of these persons to understand more fully, life as they see it. If you are a political conservative, talk to a radical liberal. Perhaps you would like to talk with someone from a different culture to understand more fully the difficulties they encounter living in the United States of America. You can talk to persons with physical disabilities to find out their perspective on living, and so on. Whomever you talk with, you are not just to observe them. The goal of the assignment is to try to see the world from their point of view.

After spending an hour with the person or group, reflect on this experience in writing or in an oral presentation. The advantage with oral presentations is that the class is able to hear each person's experience. Your written reflections should be approximately two pages; oral presentations may run as long as ten minutes each. Use the following items as a guide.

Teaching A Unit On Perception and Interracial Communication

Hazel J. Rozema

About the Author: Hazel J. Rozema is on the faculty of the Department of Speech Communication, University of Arkansas at Little Rock, 33rd and University, Little Rock, Arkansas 72204 (501-569-3158)

Abstract: The goal of this activity is to help students face their opinions and biases about interracial communication. This article appeared in the Speech Communication Teacher, copyright by the Speech Communication Association. Reprinted by permission.

 

Almost every interpersonal course and textbook has a chapter on perception. Students learn about perceptual filters and how they affect person perception.

However, few units on perception deal explicitly with labeling and stereotyping. It is important for students to grapple with their opinions and biases about interracial communication.

Although most college campuses are integrated, racial segregation still is common in social organizations and dining hall seating arrangements. Interracial communication is a reality. The question is, will this communication be friendly and cooperative, or hostile and distrustful?

Often, we ask students to assess their speaking or listening skills. Why not ask them to confront their perceptual filters, the sources of their judgments about other human beings? By confronting their biases, racial barriers may be lowered and students may enrich their lives by communicating with a wider range of individuals .

The goals of this unit are to: 1. Help students become aware of the ways in which they prejudge others, based on limited information; 2. Generate student awareness of where and when they developed their own racial attitudes; 3. Enable students to share experiences where they were prejudged (either positively or negatively), based on limited information, 4. Recognize the impact of stereotyping on self-concept; and 5. Discuss ways to promote effective interracial communication.

This unit may be as long as an instructor deems feasible. Here are some exercises I have found useful in teaching interracial communication.

1. Students are at different points on the racism to anti-racism continuum. They may not even be aware of their biases or how they developed. A written "Racial Autobiography" documenting each student's development of racial attitudes and identity is a useful first step in helping students to raise their awareness level.

2. Discuss the power of labels. Point out that they are useful in initial interactions. We use labels to give us a starting point in conversations. Thus, we ask, "What do you do for a living?" or "Where do you live?" We do not want to deal with each person as a blank slate. We grope for ways to categorize people. We search for common ground. However, labels also can have disadvantages. Labels, such as Arkansan, feminist, Baptist, librarian, and so on may lead to over-generalizations and stereotyping such as, "All Arkansans are rural folks."

3. Divide the class into small groups. Write four labels on the board: 1. Instructor at a large midwestern university; 2. President of the local PTA; 3. Dairy farmer's wife, and 4. Former nursery school teacher. Assign one label to each group. Then ask the group to compile, through consensus, a description of that individual which includes gender, age, marital status, number of children, education level, type of car, religious and political affiliations, typical dress, and hobbies. When the groups finish their descriptions, write the information on the board under each label and compare the different descriptions. Typically, considerable variation in age, education, dress, cars, and hobbies will occur. Now announce that all four descriptions fit one and the same person. At the time the exercise was developed, the individual was 33 years old, was the mother of three children, held two master's degrees (one in communication and one in education), was a Baptist, drove a Ford station wagon, a democrat, wore casual clothes (usually pants), married to the owner of one of the largest dairy farms in the area, and her hobbies included: 4-H leader, cooking, macramé, quilting, and developing exercises for speech classes. Process the exercise, exploring how each group developed their description. Did they model it after a person they had known? How did the group manage to settle differences of opinion when devising their description?

4. Divide the class into small groups. Ask each person to think of a time when they were prejudged either positively or negatively, based on a label someone applied to them. For example, the label could be based on race, sex, religion, hometown, state, city, father's occupation, their occupation, residence hall, major, membership on a sports team, membership in the military, and so on. Have each student share two descriptions with their small group: how they were prejudged and the feelings that accompanied that experience. Bring the entire class back together and compile a list of experiences and emotions that were generated by these experiences. This exercise helps students to see how often we over-generalize about others. It also assists students to focus on the affective dimension.

Videotapes Also Can Be An Effective Teaching Tool. A 1985 PBS Frontline segment titled "A Class Divided" details an experiment by third grade teacher, Jane Elliot in Riceville, Iowa. She separated her class into two groups: those with blue eyes and those with brown eyes. She consistently reinforced the message that one group was superior to the other. She gave the superior group a longer recess and extra privileges. The next day she reversed the message. Her third graders demonstrated extreme personality changes in 24 hours. Best friends became enemies and engaged in namecalling and physical attacks. A 1970 film, "The Eve of the Storm," detailed this experiment. The 55 minute PBS Frontline videotape presents excerpts from the film along with an update showing the former third graders (who are now 23 years old) at their 15th year class reunion. They discuss the impact of her exercise on their academic performance, their friendships, and their current parenting styles. The last portion of the tape shows Jane Elliot in an interracial training workshop with Iowa social workers, parole officers, and prison guards. This intense tape generates considerable discussion.

A 30 Minute Simulation May Be Used. Half the class, called the "Greens," is labeled and treated as superior while the other half, called the "Yellows," is labeled and treated as inferior. The Yellows may be identified with some obvious visible feature, such as name tags, to set them apart from the superior group. Low-v status cues such as age, race, and sex are usually quite visible in real life. The Greens may be brought into the room at the beginning of the class, before the Yellows are admitted, for training in discriminating against the Yellows. They are told to avoid interaction and physical closeness with the Yellows and to let them know that the Greens are in control. The teacher gives the Greens privileges, knowledge, and compliments that are withheld from the Yellows. Yellows may be admonished to act and think like Greens if they want to succeed. At the end of this simulation, discuss the feelings of both groups and the parallels that can be drawn with students' real lives. These parallels may involve being judged by race, sex, height, weight, or any other label.

Discuss what communication skills are needed for improved race relationships. Discuss semantic solutions such as extensional orientation or indexing. Help students to check out the reality behind the label, rather than acting out an automatic, unconscious reaction to a label.

Regardless of the exercises chosen, this can be a powerful unit. Students get very involved and leave the classroom reflecting on their feelings and actions. The feedback from the exercises is positive. Students have said, "I never realized how many people I judge each and every day. I started talking to one of the black guys in this class. I never knew he had it so rough." Expanding a basic perception unit to include several class sessions on interracial communication may help decrease interracial fears and distrust. Surely, this is an important goal for communication instructors.

Three Nonverbal Listening Styles: A Demonstration

Robert W. Loesch

About the Author: Robert W. Loesch, Speech Communication, Department of Humanities, Ferris State College, Big Rapids, Michigan 49307 (616-796-0461)

Abstract: The goal of this activity is to demonstrate the influence of a listener's nonverbal behavior on social control during dyadic communication. This article appeared in the Speech Communication Teacher, copyright by the Speech Communication Association. Reprinted by permission.

I have used this exercise to help demonstrate how a listener's nonverbal behavior acts as a form of social control during communication situations. It may be used in conjunction with different nonverbal exercises. However, its greatest value probably occurs while demonstrating "passive listening" as an introduction to more sophisticated skills, including the receiver's verbal feedback.

Three pairs of students demonstrate three different nonverbal listening styles. I begin by asking for volunteers who have much to say about a person, object, idea, or experience they value. The topic doesn't have to be highly controversial among students. Often, I ask, "Who can speak for a few minutes about a favorite person, a great vacation, or the most important thing you've learned in life?" I select three enthusiastic speakers and send them from the room. Next, I select three listeners and coach them in three different listening styles. Listener # 1 learns to establish a comfortable pattern of mutual gaze, nodding positively almost continuously, but without any vocalization. Listener # 2 learns to remain nearly immobile in a relaxed but not slumped posture with arms hanging loosely, while communicating neutrality or indifference, having little eye contact with the speaker. Listener # 3 learns to mirror the second listener's behavior for about 7 seconds, then breaks the mutual gaze and introduces the gesture of negation, a slow turning of the head from side to side. This gesture should be repeated every few seconds. It is critical for listeners to be coached, and to practice in front of the class before they face their speaking partners. The other class members are instructed to record their observations of the speakers on paper.

I ask the first speaker to return to the class and indicate that Listener # 1 will serve as the primary receiver of the message previously selected. After 2-3 minutes, I end the conversation and ask the two students to return to their seats. This demonstration continues in the same manner with the remaining two dyads.

After the three pairs finish, I conduct a debriefing session. I begin by having Listener # 2 explain the manipulated style she or he used. Next, the listener and speaker report their thoughts and feelings during their conversation. Finally, other class members share their observations and interpretations of the first dyad. This same procedure is used for the remaining two pairs of students.

Usually, the first speaker will report a feeling of comfort and a motivation to continue until the instructor interrupts. The second speaker usually will report feelings of insecurity and uncertainty and will look for a more attentive audience by assuming ~ more open stance in order to establish mutual gaze with the instructor, class members, or both. The third speaker may have stopped speaking after the first gesture of negation, with only the most contentious continuing to speak more than a few seconds after it.

This demonstration may end with a discussion of questions such as: (1) Who had more control in these conversations, the speaker or the listener? (2) To what extent did this demonstration illustrate the transactional nature of communication? (3) What, at minimum, are some requirements for effective listening?

For additional information, see M. Argyle and C. Cook, Gaze and Mutual Gaze (London: Cambridge University, 1976) and A. E. Sheflen, Body Language and the Social Order (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1972).

Earstorming

John C. Adams

About the Author: John C. Adams is on the faculty of Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY.

Abstract: The goal of this activity is to encourage creative thinking. This article appeared in the Speech Communication Teacher, copyright by the Speech Communication Association. Reprinted by permission.

Metaphor is commonly conceptualized as an agent of rhetorical invention. This essay presents a method for making metaphors that can be applied to rhetorical invention in the speech communication classroom.

Like most students of speech communication, I took coursework in small group discussion and decision-making that exposed me to the concept of "brainstorming" as a way of creative thinking. In brainstorming, one generates as many ideas as possible without stopping to critically evaluate them no matter how 'crazy' they may seem. It is believed a greater quantity of ideas will be generated this way, more people will participate in the contribution of ideas if there is no fear of their rejection, and a better decision will be reached.

"Earstorming" is the aural counterpart of brainstorming, and my sense of its potential significance has grown out of my creative experiences with what I call "weird hearings." A "weird hearing" occurs when, in serious everyday conversations with so-called normal people, one is not expecting to hear an apparently incoherent (or even bizarre) statement, but one does. A weird hearing usually happens in quite ordinary conversation with quite ordinary people. The weird hearing takes place because some kind of background noise interferes with one's ability to hear. For example, one may not hear a sibilant sound when there is background noise. Instead of hearing "She started up the car," one may hear "She started up car." One may wonder for a moment what a "started up car" looks like.

Since the weird image is taken seriously for a moment before it is recognized as an instance of weird hearing, the experience is not unlike that of having a brainstorm. Through the juxtaposition of words that do not 'normally' belong together, a meaning or image is created and a potential insight is gained that is not normally heard. However, the experience described is a consequence of being on the receiving end. Although an astonishing meaning may be created, providing an image of something not previously thought of, one is dependent on the muse of weird hearing for such an experience. This is where the idea of "Earstorming" and the creation of metaphors come together. This strategy uses troping as a means of rhetorical invention with positive consequences not unlike those of brainstorming.

In order to think more effectively with one's good, well-hearing ears: (1) select the concept that you want to Earstorm about [e.g., a map]; (2) find a word that rhymes with it [e.g., trap]; (3) put the word is a (or is my) between the concept and the rhyming word [A map is a trap. ]. Putting together words this way will produce metaphors, or what I call "rhymaphors." As a part of the Earstorming process, generate as many rhymaphors as reasonable, given time limitations and other outside constraints. Once satisfied that a sufficient quantity of rhymaphors has been generated, examine the allegories of the rhymaphors, working out their implications. Try substituting analogous words for the rhyming words and the original concept-word, thereby making non-rhyming alternative metaphors.

In weird hearing, misunderstanding can be a source of insight. Unintended meanings are created that shed light on significant interests. Earstorming can also be used to generate lines of thought, if you are willing to suspend the desire to make sense by putting utterances into the "right" context. Take the utterances 'as if' they were intended, letting them make sense on their own. Learn to dwell comfortably in the image and "go with it" wherever it may lead.

Earstorming is a method by which to engage in creative thought processes. It serves as a means of discovery and invention similar in some senses to brainstorming, sharing some of its beneficial characteristics. Earstorming will open avenues of creative thinking and at the same time illustrate the ease with which students can create metaphors. In short, the "ear" will take the "fear" out of invention.

Survey Research On Projected Impressions

Anntarie L. Sims

About the Author: Anntarie L. Sims is on the faculty of the Department of Communication and Theatre, Trenton State College, Hillwood Lakes, CN 550, Trenton, NJ. 08625 (609-771-2106)

Abstract: The goal of this instructional activity is to help students understand the images they project to other people. This article appeared in the Speech Communication Teacher, copyright by the Speech Communication Association. Reprinted by permission. 

Much of our communication is nonverbal. Our society tends to "take for granted" that nonverbal behaviors say a lot about us. Unfortunately, we seldom go beyond those "taken for granted" impressions and identify specific characteristics of our own nonverbal behavior.

This assignment assists students to gain a clear understanding of the images they present to others. They are not required to alter their normal behavior or daily routine to complete this assignment. However, they may choose to do so for experimental purposes and/or as a result of it.

Each student must do the following:

1. Complete two surveys from an intrapersonal perspective (pre/ post).

2. Conduct the survey over one week or one month.

3. Randomly select a combination of strangers, friends, and acquaintances to total sixty completed surveys to equal the required population variance. (They may have to survey more than sixty people to get an equal distribution by demographics.)

4. Include as equal a distribution of variables representing a diverse social population as possible .

5. Turn in a written analysis of the survey results.

6. Commit themselves to a specific day and time to present their findings .

7. Present their findings formally to their peers.

8. Turn in their surveys with the written assignment.

Students are expected to approach this assignment from a professional or research posture. Their emotions or personal biases towards specific social groups or situations are totally irrelevant.

They may not, at any time, in any way, and under any circumstances, influence, insult, or ignore their subjects. Their approach and thinking throughout this assignment always should be clinical and/or objective. The research focuses on collecting data and not on the subject or researcher. No matter how negative the responses or subjects may be, or how much the student disagrees with anything or anyone connected with this assignment, the student must report her or his findings objectively.

When approaching subjects, students aren't allowed to tell them the specific nature of this assignment. They must say they are conducting research for a communication class. Also, they may assure the subjects that the survey will take only a few minutes to complete. They should encourage respondents to participate honestly, since their identity will not be associated with their responses. Finally, they should assure respondents that they won't take offense to their candor. To formalize this understanding, the respondent reads and signs a consent form and completes the response form.

Communication Research Consent Form

I have been informed of the purpose of this research. I have agreed to complete this consent form as a part of the data collection process. I hereby grant permission to the researcher(s)/ student(s) collecting this data to utilize this information for academic and research purposes, including class presentations and publications. I also understand that my identity as a respondent will be kept confidential and thus, not associated with my responses.

Signed:

Dated:

Communication Research Response Form

Survey #:

Directions To Respondents: In the time that you have been interacting with this person, please attempt to honestly and candidly respond to the following statements, taking into consideration nonverbal behavior, physical appearance, clothing, tone of voice, anything about this person that conveys information.

1. Briefly describe your first impression(s) of me as a person:

2. Which specific physical characteristic is my strongest feature?

3. Do I seem similar to you?

4. How would you rate my communication skills? (check one please) exceptional: good: average: poor:

5. Am I the type of person you would like to get to know better? Why or why not?

6. Based upon your first impression, would you hire me for a job? Why or why not?

7. How would you rate my personality? (check only one please) aggressive ___ assertive ___ shy ___ other ___ (identify)

8. Which specific physical characteristic is my weakest feature?

9. Do I seem different from people who you know?

10. What adjective best describes me?

11. What will you remember most about me?

12. Did my approach in asking you to fill out this survey make you feel (check one) comfortable: uncomfortable: pressured: threatened:

13. Would you feel comfortable approaching me in a public place?

14. What image does my clothing project to you?

Please answer these questions about yourself:

SEX _____ RACE _____ AGE _____

RELATIONSHIP: Friend _____ Acquaintance _____ Stranger ____

Family _____

STATUS: Student _____ Faculty/Staff _____ Boss/Worker _____

Family Member ____

For the written portion of this assignment, students do these things after they have the appropriate number of completed surveys .

1. Tally the total variables of race, sex, age, status, origin, and relationship.

2. Classify variables or categories in terms of inter and intrapersonal communicating, using text references.

3. Discuss:

a. Responses mentioned most often.

b. Valence of responses.

c. Consistency of responses with the student's own self-image (intrapersonal surveys are included here).

d. What the researcher learned about herself or himself.

e. What the researcher will change as a result of the survey.

f. How this assignment will influence the researcher's future communication behavior.

g. How "normal" behavior was affected or adjusted or altered in order to complete this assignment. (Students should be specific here.)

h. Why or how this assignment was or was not relevant to their understanding of interpersonal (intrapersonal) communication.

i. Suggestions for improving this assignment for other students.

When the written analysis is ready to be turned in for grading, students present their findings to the class during the prearranged day and time. They learn to be objective in assessing their communication behavior in practical settings and to write about their experiences objectively. They also gain experience in being more assertive and outgoing. Usually, they begin to understand how judgments about people may be based upon very little information, other than nonverbal messages. Although everyone won't agree with the researcher's self-assessments (validation), the students gain a clearer understanding of the images they project to others.


Empathy Interview

Craig Johnson

About the Author: Craig Johnson is a member of the faculty of the Department of Communication, George Fox College, Newberg OR.

Abstract: The goal of this activity is to help class members develop their empathic abilities while creating greater understanding of the abilities and concerns of students with special needs. This article appeared in the Speech Communication Teacher, copyright by the Speech Communication Association. Reprinted by permission.

Perspective:

1. Think of a recent encounter you've had with someone who is physically disabled. How would you characterize this interaction? If it was awkward, what made it so uncomfortable? What would you do or say differently next time?

2. What steps can we take to increase our understanding of people who are significantly different from us?

I use this learning experience as part of a perception unit in which I stress the need to develop empathy skills to improve our accuracy of perceptions. (See Susan E. Kogler Hill, Improving Your Interpersonal Competence: A Laboratory Approach published by Kendall Hunt, 1982, for a more complete discussion of empathy.) This type of interview can be used with any individual who differs from most of the class in an area such as national origin, experience, limitations, cultural background, and so on.

I have used the empathy interview to encourage or expand communication between disabled and non-disabled students in my classes. Frequently, some non-disabled students are unsure of how they should interact with disabled colleagues. They may wish to be helpful, but they wonder if disabled students need or want help with things such as wheelchairs, dropped articles, or coats. Your local campus organization of disabled students may be willing to schedule one or more students for this interview to familiarize your students with problems and concerns faced by disabled students. (At one university, a disabled student panel travels around the institution and city, educating the public on how to make facilities more accessible for handicapped persons).

Before the interview date, I ask my class to complete a short questionnaire on their understanding of the perceptions of the individual(s) to be interviewed. Some of the questions might be:

1. What is the greatest problem _____ faces daily?

2. What concerns _____ most about people who are NOT disabled?

3. What Do You Think: _____ wishes you knew about physically handicapped individuals ?

I begin the session by introducing the interviewees to the class. Then I ask them questions which allow them to share information about their backgrounds: their hometown, accomplishments, college major, career goals, type of disability, and other matters which will help my students become better acquainted with each individual. I also ask the interviewees the same questions which my students answered on my preinterview questionnaire. Finally, I open up the floor to questions from the class. If students don't raise the question of whether or not disabled students wish assistance, I ask the question. (A common answer is, "If I need help, I will ask for it.") Another question may relate to the correct label(s) the interviewees prefer people use to refer to their limitations. For example, do they prefer to be referred to as "disabled," "handicapped," "handi-capable," or some other term?

Students learn that most individuals who are different from them (whether the difference is an obvious physical limitation, a less obvious learning disability, or a language limitation) do not want to be isolated, physically, academically or socially. They seek the same acceptance, opportunities, and personal goals that we all seek. Ultimately, I hope this interview helps speech communication students to be more accepting and empathic in their in-class and out-of-class associations with all people who are unlike themselves.

 

Pressed On the Issue

Carol Ann Pugsley

Epilogue

Joan E. Aitken

While working on this project, I have often found myself contemplating, arguing with myself, and wondering about the ideas presented here. I hope that you have found this volume to be interesting, controversial, and thought-provoking. JEA

Homepages: Communication Resources (Aitken) | Communicating (Berko) | Intimate Communication | Intrapersonal | Public Speaker/Public Listener (Berko) | "Speech Communication Teacher" (NCA)